larly in Africa and the Middle East. International talks on uni昀椀cation. The triumph of China’s eco- challenges festered, ranging from terrorism to nomic and military coercive power was a turning declining human development. Waves of mi- point for the region, signaling Beijing’s ability to grants 昀氀ed con昀氀ict, environmental disaster, and intimidate a close US partner and forcing China’s economic decline and sought entry to wealthier neighbors to worry that the Chinese People’s countries in Europe, Asia, and North America. Liberation Army would turn its focus to settling During this period, China experienced many of other regional scores. No other states put them- the same environmental and societal problems selves in a position to challenge China’s rise in the but was better able to adapt because of stronger region. Russia generally aligned with China but social cohesion and trust; agile direction from became a lesser partner with each passing year. centralized authority; a proven ability to deliver Although India bene昀椀ted from growth in Asia, it could take years for it to be able to take on, much jobs, goods, and services; and a political system less contain, its more powerful neighbor. that repressed competing voices. Although to a lesser degree than the growth in the boom years of the 1990s and 2000s, domestic demand generated gross domestic product (GDP) growth KEY TAKEAWAYS su昀케cient to allow China to surpass the United States to become the world’s largest economy by 2030. Huge infrastructure projects aimed at man- This is a directionless world in which international rules of behavior are no longer followed, global cooperation is limited, aging the e昀昀ects of climate change, like the great Shanghai sea wall, became the envy of the world. and technology fails to provide solutions. Similar infrastructure development programs and steady foreign investment and assistance helped China’s increasingly aggressive moves in Asia elevates the risk China gain in昀氀uence in the developing world. of armed conflict with other regional powers, especially over Despite these gains, China continued to focus on critical resources. In contrast, developing countries with large countering perceived security threats around its unemployed youthful populations feel compelled to appease periphery and at home. Beijing remained wary Chinese demands in hopes of securing much needed invest- of international entanglements and leadership ment and aid. roles outside its immediate region. Rather than attempting to fashion a new global order, China Regional powers and nonstate actors, including corporations, concentrated on promoting industries and setting have more influence over domains like cyber, space, and other technology standards that advanced its develop- technologies, but they lack the power to dominate the system. ment goals. Many governments were content to pro昀椀t from Weakened rules and lack of multilateral cooperation leave the China’s large market and to pocket other bene昀椀ts, world more vulnerable to individual hackers, terrorists, and like Chinese assistance with domestic surveillance criminal groups. Belligerents feel emboldened to pursue their and security systems, but few wanted to live goals with force, particularly in the Middle East and Africa. under a China-led international order. The United States attempted to preserve ties to remaining Large global problems, particularly climate change and health allies in the region, but Japan and South Korea pursued increasingly independent military mod- challenges, fester as states lack incentives to pursue collec- ernization programs and even their own nuclear tive actions and instead apply a patchwork of mismatched weapons programs, in part out of concern about approaches. Nonetheless, some states, companies, and the reliability of the US security umbrella against private organizations use the freedom to discover novel ways China and North Korea. to enhance human health and worker productivity and to By 2035, China’s position in Asia became unassail- experiment with new approaches to economic development able, especially after it successfully compelled the and governance. Government of Taiwan to come to the table for Photo / Bigstock A MORE CONTESTED WORLD 113