40 3 TheFoundations of Human-Experiential Design “Information systems are implemented within an organization for the purpose of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of that organization”. Concrete prescriptions have been defined as constructs (vocabulary and symbols), models (abstractionsandrepresentations),methods(algorithmsandpractices),andinstanti- ations (implemented and prototype systems) (Hevner et al. 2004; March and Smith 1995). The objective of systems theory is to identify properties common to all types of system and to use these properties to understand and describe specific systems (Walls et al. 1992). Methodsof effective developmentand a type of instantiation for aparticularclassofmodels(Markusetal.2002)arethenprescribed.Constructshelp to communicatebetweenproblemsdefinedandsolutionsrepresented(Schön1983). Models use constructs to conceptualize a real world phenomenon, and visualize the design problem and its solution space (Simon 1996). Models are also used to understand problems and solution, and to represent the effects of decision-makings and changes in the real situation in which problem and solution components are engaged (Hevner et al. 2004). Methods define processes, which guide how to find a solution space. Constructs, models, and methods need to be integrated effectively to implement solutions in a system in real situations. Instantiations, in other words, designing and prototyping, demonstrate feasibility, enabling the evaluation of an artefact’s suitability for its intended purpose (Hevner et al. 2004; March and Smith 1995). Design knowledge in user-centred design, including not only systems design but also product and interaction design more broadly and industrial design in general, has two aspects, a product (artefact) and a process (set of activities) (Hevneret al. 2004; Walls et al. 1992). As defined previously,a user-centred design process can be seen as a process centring on the knowledge lifecycle that includes knowledge of use, knowledge of design and the user who generates knowledge through interpretation of embedded design knowledge in artefacts/products. The goal of developing knowledge continuously shifts between design processes and designed artefacts. The design process is thus a knowledge development cycle that generates innovative products/artefacts. Evaluation of both the artefacts and the process is needed in order to understand the problems for which the process of knowledgecycleiseffectivelycarriedout,whichinturnimproveboththequalityof the product/artefact and the design process. Knowledge development is a lifecycle loop repeatedly conducted until the final artefact is designed (Markus et al. 2002). Methods for developing knowledge in design research and in IS research share a paradigm in which they pursue the same goal, which is a problem solving. The developed theories prescribe effectiveness of system solutions for a particular class of user requirement (Markus et al. 2002, p. 180). Design knowledge in these domains focuses on situated utility (March and Smith 1995). As the categorization of audiences shown previously (see Fig. 3.2) reveals, the process of understanding onamorehumanscale,moreexperientiallyandaestheticalsensitiveisnotdiscussed or investigated.