15. See, esp., Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia , 26–34; Kahan, Essays , 20–27; Ezra Mendelsohn, Class Struggle in the Pale: The Formative Years of the Jewish Workers’ Movement in Tsarist Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 1–26. 16. See Klier and Lambroza, Pogroms ; and Hans Rogger, Jewish Policies and Right-Wing Politics in Imperial Russia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), esp. 113–75. 17. Andrew Godley, Jewish Immigrant Entrepreneurship in New York and London 1880–1914: Enterprise and Culture (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 71–72; for the statistics, see ibid., 68–87, and Mordechai Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust: A Social and Demographic Profile (Jerusalem: Center for Research of East European Jewry, 1998), 9. See also Zvi Gitelman, “ ‘From a Northern Country’: Russian and Soviet Jewish Immigration to America and Israel in Historical Perspective,” in Russian Jews on Three Continents: Migration and Resettlement , ed. Noah Lewin-Epstein et al. (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 23. 18. Kahan, Essays , 29–30; Mendelsohn, Class Struggle , 4–5; Steven J. Zipperstein, The Jews of Odessa: A Cultural History, 1794–1881 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), 15; Iukhneva, Etnicheskii sostav , 24; Nathans, Beyond the Pale , 91–100. 19. B. V. Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma v Rossii 1860–1914 gg: Ocherki istorii chastnogo predprinimatel’stva (Leningrad: Nauka, 1991), 8–13; Alfred J. Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 57–60; Arcadius Kahan, “Notes on Jewish Entrepreneurship in Tsarist Russia,” in Guroff and Carstensen, Entrepreneurship in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union , 107–18. 20. Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma , 37, 41, 72–73, 86–87, 139, and passim; Kahan, “Notes,” 122–23; Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia , 25; Nathans, Beyond the Pale , 68, 128–29; Mikhael’ Beizer, Evrei Leningrada 1917–1939: Natsional’naia zhizn’ i sovetizatsiia (Moscow; Mosty kul’tury, 1999), 15. 21. Kahan, “Notes,” 111. 22. Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia , 24–25 (including the Sachar quotation); Kahan, “Notes,” 118; Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma , 73, 135–37. 23. Kahan, “Notes,” 119–20; Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma , 49–66; Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia , 24– 25. 24. Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma , 41, 79. 25. Kahan, Essays , 3. 26. Robert Weinberg, “The Pogrom of 1905 in Odessa: A Case Study,” in Klier and Lambroza, Pogroms , 252–53; Kahan, “Notes,” 115–16; Owen, Russian Corporate Capitalism , 188; Nathans, Beyond the Pale , 102–3; Iukhneva, Etnicheskii sostav , 211–12. 27. Kahan, Essays , 15–22; Kahan, “Notes,” 115–17. Cf. Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” 586–87. 28. Nathans, Beyond the Pale , 217–18; Zipperstein, The Jews of Odessa , 108, 116. The Smolenskin quotation is on 108. 29. Isaak Babel’, Sochineniia , vol. 2 (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1992), 146. My translations are based on David McDuff’s in Isaac Babel, Collected Stories (New York: Penguin, 1994); and Walter Morison’s in Isaac Babel, The Collected Stories (New York: Meridian, 1974). 30. Nathans, Beyond the Pale , 218, 224; B. N. Mironov, Sotsial’naia istoriia Rossii perioda imperii , vol. 1 (St. Petersburg: D. Bulanin, 1999), 31. 31. Erich Haberer, Jews and Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 13; Nathans, Beyond the Pale , 102–3, 314–15, 343–44, 354, and passim; Beizer, Evrei Leningrada , 14. 32. Babel’, Sochineniia , 2:171. 33. Ibid. 34. See, esp., Ruth Apter-Gabriel, ed., Tradition and Revolution: The Jewish Renaissance in Russian Avant-Garde Art 1912–1928 (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1988); John E. Bowlt, “Jewish Artists and the