11. Taina Izrailia: “Evreiskii vopros” v russkoi religioznoi mysli kontsa XIX–pervoi poloviny XX v.v . (St. Petersburg: Sofiia, 1993), 251. Throughout, translations from foreign-language works are mine, unless otherwise noted. 12. Yuri Slezkine, “Naturalists versus Nations: Eighteenth-Century Russian Scholars Confront Ethnic Diversity,” Representations 47 (Summer 1994): 174, 180–82; Max Weber, Ancient Judaism (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1952), 351–55. 13. Vaughn, “Caste Systems,” 77–79; Sutherland, “The Body,” 378–80; Okely, The Traveller-Gypsies , 83–85; Axelrod, “A Social and Demographic Comparison,” 51–54, 61–62. 14. See, esp., Sutherland, “The Body,” and Luhrmann, The Good Parsi , 102; Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), 109; David Nemeth, “Gypsy Taskmasters, Gentile Slaves,” in The American Kalderas: Gypsies in the New World , ed. Matt T. Salo (Hackettstown, N.J.: Gypsy Lore Society, North American Chapter, 1981), 29–41. 15. For dissenting views, see Okely, The Traveller-Gypsies , 8–19; and Paul Wexler, “The Case for the Relexification Hypothesis in Romani,” in Relexification in Creole and Non-Creole Languages , ed. Julia Horvath and Paul Wexler (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1997), 100–161. For a very helpful overview, see Yaron Matras, “Para-Romani Revisited,” in The Romani Element in Non-Standard Speech , ed. Yaron Matras (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), 1–27. 16. For the main arguments, see, in order: (1) Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman, Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 103 f.; (2) Ian F. Hancock, “The Social and Linguistic Development of Angloromani,” Working Papers in Sociolinguistics , no. 38 (December 1977): 1–42; also Ian F. Hancock, “Is Anglo-Romanes a Creole?” Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society 49, nos. 1–2 (1970): 41–44; (3) Norbert Boretzky and Birgit Igla, “Romani Mixed Dialects,” in Mixed Languages: Fifteen Case Studies in Language Intertwining , ed. Peter Bakker and Maarten Mous (Amsterdam: IFOTT, 1994), 35–68; and Norbert Boretzky, “Der Romani- Wortschatz in den Romani-Misch-Dialekten (Pararomani),” in Matras, The Romani Element , 97–132; (4) Peter Bakker and Maarten Mous, “Introduction,” and Peter Bakker, “Michif, The Cree-French Mixed Language of the Métis Buffalo Hunters in Canada,” in Bakker and Mous, Mixed Languages , 1–11 and 13– 33; and (5) Jakob Ladefoged, “Romani Elements in Non-Standard Scandinavian Varieties,” in Matras, The Romani Element , 133–64. 17. Olesen, “Peddling in East Afghanistan,” 36; Bollig, “Ethnic Relations,” 204, 214. 18. Casajus, “Crafts and Ceremonies,” 308–9; Bollig, “Ethnic Relations,” 214; Hancock, “The Social and Linguistic Development,” 29; Anthony P. Grant, “Shelta: The Secret Language of Irish Travellers Viewed as a Mixed Language,” in Bakker and Mous, Mixed Languages , 135–36; R. A. Stewart Macalister, The Secret Languages of Ireland, with Special Reference to the Origin and Nature of the Shelta Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1937), 132. 19. Quoted in Macalister, The Secret Languages , 134–35. 20. Solomon A. Birnbaum, Yiddish: A Survey and Grammar (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1979), 76, 106. 21. Max Weinreich, History of the Yiddish Language (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 95– 124. 22. Paul Wexler, The Ashkenazic Jews: A Slavo-Turkic People in Search of a Jewish Identity (Columbus, Ohio: Slavica, 1993), 59–60 and passim; Dell Hymes, “Introduction,” in Pidginization and Creolization of Languages , ed. Dell Hymes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 76, 77–78, 86–87 (the quotation is from 86); see also Ian F. Hancock, “Recovering Pidgin Genesis: Approaches and Problems,” in Pidgin and Creole Linguistics , ed. Albert Valdman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977), 277–94, esp. 289–90, and Ian F. Hancock, “Appendix: Repertory of Pidgin and Creole Languages,” in ibid., 385. 23. Birnbaum, Yiddish , 82 and passim; Weinreich, History of the Yiddish Language , 29, 350–51, 599 f., and passim; Joshua A. Fishman, Yiddish: Turning to Life (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991), 19–35, 189– 201. 24. For the “mixed language” category, see Bakker, “Michif,” 25–26. There is, of course, no doubt that