in Russian Empire, 116, 118, 166 of service nomads, 36 in Ukraine, 289 and Zionism, 149. See also anti-Semitism; violence Poland: Jewish communists in, 89, 95–96, 98 Jewish professionals in, 50 Jews and culture of, 72 language in, 127 purge of Jews in, 314 Poles, 107, 299 emigration of to United States, 117 and Great Terror, 273 revolutionary, 152 and Russian civil war, 173 in Soviet Union, 336 Poliakov, Iakov Solomonovich, 119 Poliakov, Lazar, 119 Poliakov, Samuil, 120 Poliakov family, 121 police, Soviet secret: and anti-Semitism, 244 and Babel, 172, 190, 255 in Jabotinsky, 215 Jews in, 177, 221, 254–55, 304, 360 and Kogan, 235 and official orthodoxy, 306–7 Solzhenitsyn on, 360 and White Sea Canal, 199 Polisar, Khaim, 196, 221 Polish (language), 67 politics, 48 American Jews in, 369–70 nationalist vs. tribal, 322 Soviet Jews in, 224, 251–52, 272–75